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Latest update: Sunday, December 7, 2008.
Thanks for entering our website! If you are curious about advanced flight physics, alternative power sources, and the exciting new science of electrogravitics, then read on . . . the future awaits!
Solar Skiff went online just before Christmas 2004, hosted by the Wyoming company LaramieTrader.com. The navigation buttons at left and company header above remain in place at all times. If you don't see them, please click here for the complete window.
You may also use the following outline to browse Solar Skiff:
"All this, and Heaven too!"
Matthew Henry (Life of Philip Henry)
Welcome / Introduction
Company / Chief / Team / Solar Skiff News
Space Skiffs / Flight Performance / Flight Training
Mass / Inertia / Accelerations / Forces and Weights
Gravity / Newton's Law / Einstein's Spacetime / Oersted's Flux / Hooper's Field
Introductory Electrogravitics / Numerical Electrogravitics / Applied Electrogravitics
Research / Magneton Model / Spinoffs / Magnet Motors / Clean Energy
Business Plan / Structure / Strategy / Feasibility / Hiring / Financial / Marketing
Space Tourism / Passenger List
General Questions / Electrogravitics Questions / Tough Questions
Glossary of Electrogravitics
References / Citations / Space Links
"Earth is the cradle of mankind, but one cannot live in
the cradle forever."
Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovskiy
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Solar Skiff is more than simply another start-up space company. It is a web-based concept to explore the fantastic world of unconventional space technology, and share it with all interested inhabitants of planet Earth. We will touch on many aspects of astronautics, while initially focusing on the challenge of designing and building small skiffs.
The potential of the space skiff in terms of economy, safety, reliability, and practicality far exceeds other concepts, which today rely on explosive propellants, teetering rockets, and modular spacecraft. This is because our skiffs will not be rocket powered at all, but will be built to take advantage of the electromagnetic basis of gravity. In this website we explore the theory of electrogravitics, which could well provide the key to swift and efficient spaceflight, including interstellar travel. We will attempt to explain its many intriguing possibilites in the pages that follow.
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All conventional spacecraft require some form of rocket engine, fed by some combination of liquid or solid propellants. Solid rockets originated with the Chinese a millenium ago, while liquid rockets can trace their lineage back to Professor Goddard's device and the German V-2, both pictured on this page. The men who built and flew these early rockets were true pioneers, and we owe them much. Yet all rockets are inherently limited by the physics of the rocket equation, which makes spaceflight today a very complex, expensive, and dangerous proposition. Fortunately, there may be a better way.
Spacecraft powered and propelled by the principles of electrogravitics will have no need for bulky propellants or balky rocket engines. They will instead utilize free and abundant resources and energy in space to sail the cosmic sea. The source of energy will be the same wellspring that already powers all electromagnetic phenomena everywhere. We know the Universe is permeated by magnetic, electric, and gravitational fields, criss-crossed by charged particles and electromagnetic oscillations, and underlain by zero-point quantum fluctuations. Space is truly a realm of unlimited energy, an "electric ocean" just waiting to be tapped. We will attempt to explain some of these strange ideas within this website. Herein are contained marvels directed at those who would dare to dream of a fantastic energy-rich future now coming into focus at the frontiers of physics, the kind of future predicted by Nikola Tesla as far back as 1891:
Ere many generations pass, our machinery will be driven by power obtainable at any point in the universe. . . . it is a mere question of time when man will succeed in attaching his machinery to the very Wheel-Work of nature. [1]
In order to understand the new science of electrogravitics, we will need to ask some very basic questions, and make an honest attempt to find rational answers. These questions get right down to the basics of how the Universe works, at scales ranging from the subatomic to the intergalactic. Here are a few of these questions.
What exactly is gravity? Why does gravity always attract and why is it by far the weakest of the four forces? Is gravity related to magnetism and electricity? What is inertia, and how does it relate to gravity? What are electrons, protons, and neutrons? What is the origin of mass, charge, and spin? How are gravitational and inertial effects propagated through space? What is the speed of propagation? Is there a difference in the way these effects are transmitted between atoms and between galaxies? What do ordinary bicycles and electrogravitics have in common?
Our answers to these questions and others may challenge your view of reality. If after perusing this website you still have doubts, then please check out our answers to these tough questions.
Good ideas are some of the most powerful things in the Universe. Our goal is to develop good ideas and turn them into tangible realities. Our task is to build great spaceships — electrogravitic space skiffs for the 21st century and beyond.
"He who has vision but no task is a dreamer.
He who has a task but no vision is a drudge.
He who has both is a hero."
Anonymous
Return to Main Outline at top of website.
Chief
/ Team
/ Skiff News
"We know what we are, but know not what we may be."
Shakespeare Hamlet, IV, v, 43
A
Primitive Spaceship (NASA)
Based in southeastern Wyoming, U.S.A., Solar Skiff is a new company, dedicated to the design, engineering, and fabrication of electrogravitic spaceships. It intends to bootstrap its way into space with your help. Contrary to conventional wisdom, we don't believe it should cost billions of dollars to build spaceships.
To ensure that revenue is not wasted, Solar Skiff has a policy of operating strictly on a pay-as-you-go basis. We don't borrow money, and we don't buy on credit. Due to this policy, it is impossible for the company to fail for financial reasons.
The initial manufacturing facility will be a combination garage, greenhouse, and electrogravitics workshop, with construction to start in summer 2008. Photos of this "Skiff Shop" will be posted here as soon as construction begins.
Eventually, a larger facility will be built at another location as the company continues to grow.
Happy
landing after test flight of
stick-and-rudder
Glastar
Chief and founder of Solar Skiff, and author of this website, is polyglot pilot and self-taught electrograviticist Matthew Bentley. Born on a dairy farm within months of the first manned spaceflights in 1961, he is the fifth of six children, and springs from early American, British, German, and Swedish roots. Since his New England childhood he has held an unwavering passion for space exploration and technology. It was during the Apollo 14 Moon mission in 1971 that he "discovered" this passion, living just 20 miles from where Robert Hutchings Goddard flew the first liquid fueled rocket 45 years earlier. At age 12, living on a Vermont dairy farm, he wrote a short essay about working in a future factory producing “giant spaceships.” He has been a private pilot since 1984, spent four years in the U.S. Navy as an Electrician's Mate, and has a degree in Russian language from the University of Wyoming. He has helped his father build several experimental airplanes including the one pictured. He is an avid self-taught student of aerospace engineering and astronomy, and continues to learn as much as possible in his spare time. He enjoys problem solving, science fiction, foreign languages, whistling, and frisbee. He speaks Swedish and German in addition to Russian, as well as a smattering of Icelandic. Mr. Bentley is married to his southern sweetheart. Together, they have three spunky sons and three darling daughters.
We are always looking for new team members to volunteer their services or expertise. If you are interested, please email us or write us at the address in the header above.
Return to Main Outline at top of website.
"It is fun to be in the same decade with you."
Franklin D. Roosevelt
December 2004:
Solar Skiff website launches, initally focusing on single-stage-to-orbit
spaceplanes.
April 2006:
Solar Skiff switches focus from rocket-powered spaceplanes to electrogravitic
propulsion.
June 2006:
Solar Skiff chief develops magneton model.
September 2006:
Solar Skiff begins research on wireless permanent-magnet motors.
December 2006:
Website is updated with clearer explanations of gravitational and inertial fields.
February 2007:
Solar Skiff posts future passenger list.
April 2008:
Author Francesco Calvo (The Therion Chronicles) makes the first donation
to Solar Skiff.
Return to Main Outline at top of website.
Flight Experience / Flight Performance / Flight Training
"Every vision is a joke until the first man accomplishes
it."
Robert Hutchings Goddard
"Stand by to reverse polarity . . . artificial gravity off . . . half flux . . . cut main coils."
This is the pre-landing checklist — called out by Skipper J.J. Adams (Leslie Nielsen) of United Planets Cruiser C-57D — in the 1956 science fiction movie Forbidden Planet. Commander Adams' spaceship is a classic flying saucer apparently powered by some form of electromagnetism. As the saucer gently sets down on Altair IV, a curtain of ionized blue air beneath the craft gradually changes shape from a diverging to a converging cone pointed at the ground. The electromagnetic terminology, combined with the ionized landing cone and obvious control of gravity, all suggest electrogravitic propulsion.
The opening sequence of Forbidden Planet presents a clear vision of our possible future, which we will examine in this section. We will try to answer questions like how space skiffs will operate, what it will feel like to ride in one, how they will accelerate without g forces, what their operational capabilities will be, and more. This part of the website will read like science fiction, but if history is any guide, science fiction has always heralded new discoveries, new science, and new technology.
Space skiffs will look very much like classic flying saucers, for the simple reason that this shape allows the artificial production of electrogravity. Magnetic fields will be generated and rotated so that magnetic flux lines sweep through the craft at right angles to the instantaneous magnetic field vectors themselves. In this way, a gravity field is generated in the atoms of the skiff, vectored at right angles to both the magnetic field vectors and the directions of their own rotations. For example, an inward pointing magnetic field would be rotated clockwise to produce an upward acting electrogravitic field vector. More on this later.
Because of the close relationship between inertial and gravitational forces, skiffs will be driven by inertialess technology. When a skiff pilot adds power or maneuvers his craft, he and his passengers will feel no g forces whatsoever. Space skiffs will thus be able to accelerate very quickly without harming their crews, passengers, or even their own structures. Travel to the Moon will take mere minutes. The planets of the Solar System will be a few hours away at most. And interstellar travel will be as commonplace as jet travel is today. This may sound like science fiction, yet these principles are based on solid physics.
All conventional vehicles — land, sea, air, and space — reach their operating speeds by using contact forces to accelerate. The contact forces imposed in one direction result in oppositely directed inertial forces. These are the g forces experienced by astronauts and jet pilots, and the "pressed back in the seat" feeling when you step on the gas. These g forces are always directed along the same line of action as the imposed force. For example, an inward pointing "centripetal" force results in an outward pointing "centrifugal" force felt by the occupants of a vehicle moving in a curved path.
Unlike contact forces, force fields cause no inertial effects whatsoever. The most apparent example of a force field is gravity, which forces objects toward the center of the field. This force accelerates objects without inertial effects. Therefore a dropped object feels nothing until it encounters some surface.
Space skiffs will use force fields rather than contact forces to achieve acceleration in any direction. This is how high performance flight can be achieved without the limitations imposed by inertia.
When the skiff pilot powers up the vehicle, strong rotating magnetic fields appear in the vicinity of the craft, which sweep the immediate area. These fields induce motional electric fields in the atoms of the skiff and its occupants. If the sweeping magnetic fields are of sufficient intensity and are rotating in the proper direction, the induced electric fields will reduce the charge separations within the atoms of ship and crew caused by the planet's natural gravity field. Gradually, craft and crew become weightless and begin to float under the influence of the artifically generated field.
By further increasing the strength or speed of the sweeping magnetic fields, the pilot can induce a charge separation of opposite polarity to that caused by gravity. As far as the structure of the craft and its occupants are concerned, "down" is now in the "up" direction, and the skiff falls away from the Earth, accelerating into space.
Experiencing flight in a space skiff promises to be unlike that of any other flying craft, because of the unconventional physics employed. Inertial effects will be absent, and an external atmosphere will not be required for lift, combustion, or propulsion. In spite of phenomenal performance, skiff passengers and crew will experience no g forces whatsoever.
All conventional flying vehicles, from simple balloons to advanced rockets, experience inertial forces during operation. These forces may be generated by the craft itself, or they may come from external sources such as winds, updrafts, downdrafts, etc. It is in this area, inertia, that electrogravitic craft differ most markedly from other technologies. The principles of electrogravity ensure that self-generated inertial effects do not occur.
An electrogravitic spacecraft can therefore depart Earth under extreme acceleration while passengers and crew remain immune to the deleterious effects of inertia.
Space skiffs will greatly exceed the performance of conventional air- and spacecraft. Like a helicopter, they will launch and land vertically, or hover in place as necessary. Yet they will also sport supersonic speeds in any atmosphere. Since lift is generated by electrogravitic rather than aerodynamic means, their operations will not be limited to the atmosphere. Skiffs will therefore have no service ceiling, nor will they have a set maximum speed by reference to clocked velocity. Although observed velocities will never exceed the speed of light, clocked speeds will routinely do so.
As soon as the technology is perfected, we will build a small fleet of two-seat skiffs in order to train future skiff pilots. Only the most highly motivated, intelligent, and cautious candidates will be chosen. Personal finances will play no role in who is selected for this exclusive program.
Return to Main Outline at top of website.
Mass / Inertia / Accelerations / Forces and Weights
This section serves to acquaint the Curious Reader with some basic physical concepts required to properly understand this website.
The mass of an object is simply a tally of the number of subatomic particles it contains. It is a quantity intimately tied to inertia, accelerations, and forces through Newton's Laws of Motion. The mass of any object is constant throughout the Universe, and it determines the weight of a body in a gravity field.
Mass is expressed in slugs using U.S. customary units, or kilograms in SI units. One slug weighs 32 pounds at Earth's surface, but only 5.4 pounds on the Moon. Similarly, a kilogram weighs 2.2 pounds on Earth but less than 6 ounces on the Moon. All masses seem to lose their weight in free-fall conditions, and between celestial bodies in space.
A dropped object, therefore, seems weightless until it makes contact with some surface.
Mass can be determined in one of two ways: gravitationally or inertially. Gravitational mass is found by dividing the weight of an object by the local acceleration of gravity. Inertial mass is determined by dividing the force applied to an object by its resulting acceleration in the direction of that force. Experiments show that gravitational and inertial masses are equivalent, to extremely high precision.
Conventional physics teaches that mass is a scalar quantity, imparted to particles of matter by a hypothetical Higgs field and mediated by a hypothetical Higgs boson, yet to be discovered.
The magneton model, inspired by other sources, submits that mass is a vector quantity, given the mere illusion of scalar mass by orthogonal rotations and oscillations of fundamental magnetic fields.
The model proposes that particles may be flat magnetic entities that spin like flywheels, flip like pancakes, and throb like pulsars. The two constant-frequency orthogonal rotations — spin and flip — would give rise to the magnetic and electrical properties of electrons, protons, neutrons, and photons. At the same time, the variable pulsation rate — throb — would give rise to the discrete masses of particles and to distinct electromagnetic wavelengths. The spin-flip-throb vector equation for electromagnetic mass is
m = (E x H) / f 3
where vectors are underlined. The cubic variable, f, in the denominator refers to the the spin, flip, and throb frequencies. Further information can be found in the magneton model section of this website.
If mass has an electromagnetic basis, this would explain how gravity acts electromagnetically on all matter.
All objects with mass also have the property of inertia, which is a body's resistance to acceleration. The greater the mass, the greater the force required to accelerate that object. The smaller the mass, the less the force that is required for the same acceleration. The mass of an object determines how much inertia it has.
Inertial effects occur whenever a body is accelerated or decelerated against a barrier. Familiar examples include an astronaut in an accelerating spacecraft, a jet pilot executing a high-g turn, and an automobile screeching to a stop.
Inertia and gravity each involve forces impressed on masses under some acceleration, in accordance with Newton's 2nd Law:
F = ma
This mathematical statement just says that a mass m under acceleration a experiences a force F, or that an applied force F causes a mass m to experience an acceleration a.
In a gravitational field, this formula is usually written in terms of weight W and gravitational acceleration g.
W = mg
Read more about inertial fields here.
Accelerations involve a change in velocity with time. Whether the velocity vector changes in magnitude, direction, or both doesn't matter. Any change in speed or direction results in an acceleration.
Acceleration fields are analogous to electric fields. Both inertial effects and gravitational fields are transmitted by electrons in atomic orbitals. These statements are supported by the following simple equations:
g = F/m
a = F/m
E = F/q
The first equation is that of a gravity field, where a mass m is accelerated (g) by a gravitational force F. The second equation represents an inertial field, where a mass m is accelerated (a) by an inertial force F. And the third equation describes an electric field, where a charge q is accelerated (E) by an electric force F. In all three cases, the forces and accelerations are vectors acting along the same line of action.
Applying a gravitational or inertial acceleration to a mass, or an electric field to a charge, results in a force.
In the case of gravity, the force vector is simply the downward weight of a mass:
W = mg
In inertial situations, the force may be a push, a pull, or a centrifugal force acting on an accelerated mass:
F = ma
F = mv2/r
In electric fields, the force is termed an electric repulsion or attraction on a charged particle:
F = qE
All forces, whether they are gravitational forces, inertial forces, or electromagnetic forces, are actually transmitted electromagnetically. And, as we have already seen, all matter has an electromagnetic basis.
Newton's Law / Einstein's Spacetime / Oersted's Flux / Hooper's Field
"Ye shall know the
truth, and the truth will make you free."
Jesus Christ
The purpose of this section is to compare and contrast three main theories of gravity. We also introduce the magnetic Oersted Flux surrounding all electric currents, which is crucial in understanding electrogravity.
Newton's theory posited that gravity was a "pull" acting instantaneously between any two material objects. Einstein's view, known as the general theory of relativity, holds that matter warps the spacetime continuum, which then "pushes" on matter. The theory of electrogravity explains gravity as a combined "push" and "pull" resulting in a very weak force in one direction. As you will read below, electrogravity is the only theory that explains why gravity always attracts, and also why it is the weakest force of nature.
Sir Isaac Newton, father of physics, is credited with developing the first working theory of gravity, his "law" of Universal Gravitation. It was published in 1686, ninety-nine years before Coulomb published his electrostatic law. Because the basic electrical nature of matter hadn't yet been discovered, Newton's theory makes no reference to electric charge. It simply states that two masses, M and m, will exert a mutual force of attraction on one another, depending on the distance between them, r. Take as an example the Earth and an apple hanging from a tree somewhere on its surface. The lighter apple will appear to fall onto the surface of the much heavier and larger Earth (possibly bouncing off the forehead of a napping Newton). The law can be stated in mathematical terms thus:
W = G Mm/r2
In this case, r represents the distance between the centers of Earth and apple, or the radius of the Earth plus the height of the apple branch. For objects on the surface of Earth, the force W is simply the weight of the small object of mass m, and G is Newton's gravitational constant, valid throughout the known Universe. By taking Sir Isaac's second law of motion and applying it to gravity, the acceleration of gravity g on the surface of any celestial body of mass M and radius r can quickly be determined:
W = mg = GMm/r2
g = GM/r2
In addition, a gravity field g is defined as a point in space where a test mass m experiences a force W equal to mg. Therefore, a gravitational field is defined as
g = W/m
Equating the right sides of the last two equations gives us back Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation.
Even Sir Isaac himself recognized some problems with his theory, though. For example, in order for his law to work, gravitational forces had to instantly cross the empty gulf between celestial objects. The Earth and Moon were obviously gravitationally bound, but Newton could never explain how those forces were transmitted. Newton knew that his force acted instantaneously, but he couldn't imagine how.
Also, his law didn't work properly in high gravity fields, and didn't predict the bending of electromagnetic rays near gravitating objects. Nor could it predict the precession of the perihelion of Mercury's orbit. Moreover, his law could not explain why gravity always attracts, never repels, and why it was so weak compared to the electromagnetic force. Newton could never have imagined an electromagnetic basis for gravity, because his theory predates Coulomb's by nearly a century.
Despite these drawbacks, Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation is simple and robust enough for all of Earth's space programs. All orbital, lunar, and interplanetary spacecraft have relied exclusively on Newton's law since the Space Age began in 1957.
The scientific establishment today accepts Albert Einstein's 1916 theory of general relativity as virtual dogma, just as it formerly accepted Newton's theory, which is still called a "law" of gravity. Unlike Newton's law, the general theory of relativity models gravity as an attribute of spacetime, which automatically warps in the presence of gravitating bodies. This theory, in fact, forms the rationale for the warp drive used by the USS Enterprise in the Star Trek television series. Gravity — according to Einstein — isn't a force at all, but a curvature of space and time. Therefore the Moon doesn't require an invisible force linking it to the Earth, but simply follows the curved geodesics of space to remain in orbit. Light, also, follows the shape of the spacetime continuum, appearing to change course as it grazes stars and other gravitating bodies. You are stuck to Earth not because the planet pulls you, but because Earth has warped spacetime, which presses you onto the planet.
General relativity is based on the equivalence principle, which states that an inertial acceleration is equivalent to a gravitational field. In other words, a ship in deep space accelerating at one g will experience Earth normal gravity inside. Furthermore, the crew of that ship can perform all manner of gravity experiments and get the same results as they would on Earth. The significance of the equivalence principle is the implication that gravitational and inertial masses are equivalent, even though the theory cannot explain how. Also, objects in space can accelerate without inertial effects, because they follow the geodesic grid of a curved continuum. But again, the theory cannot explain the relationship between surface gravitational fields and equivalent inertial effects.
General relativity successfully explains the precession of the perihelion of Mercury's orbit, predicts the bending of starlight near gravitating bodies, and accounts for a gravitational redshift, or stretching of wavelength in the light coming from dense white dwarf stars. Despite these successes, it cannot explain how mass warps the very fabric of space, why gravity always attracts and never repels, and why the gravitational force is far weaker than the electromagnetic force. Significantly, a unified theory linking general relativity with electromagnetism, which Einstein spent the last years of his life working to achieve, remains elusive.
These are not the only problems with general relativity. One of its main tenets is that nothing, including gravity, can travel faster than light. Yet both Newton's law and the laws of celestial mechanics work only when gravitational effects are assumed to travel instantaneously. In fact, binary pulsars receive information about one another's gravity fields faster than the light-travel time between them. And light cannot escape from black holes, but gravity evidently does. Wait, there's more.
Geometry shows that a finite speed of gravity destroys planetary orbits. Since gravity works in both directions, the force of the Sun on the Earth, for example, must be equal to and in the opposite direction as the force of the Earth on the Sun. Yet, if gravity, like light, takes eight minutes and 20 seconds to bridge the gap, then the force of the Sun on the Earth would not be along the same line of action as the force of the Earth on the Sun. This is because both Sun and Earth will have moved during that eight minutes, in different directions. Therefore, the misaligned forces would create a couple, altering the angular momentum of all planetary orbits, and creating serious orbital instabilities. This idea was first explained by Sir Arthur Eddington as early as 1920.
In addition to these concerns, there is no aberration of gravity as there is with light, due to Earth's motion about the Sun. That is to say, there is no vector component of gravity due to Earth's orbital speed of 18 miles per second, if gravity really "streams out" from the Sun at the speed of light. An aberration of light is well-documented, with verifiable results causing dust grains to spiral into the Sun, but no analogous aberration of gravity has ever been detected.
Finally, general relativity and quantum mechanics are mutually incompatible, so at least one of these theories must be in error. Yet much of our modern world of computerized electronics depends on quantum mechanics.
In 1820 Hans Christian Oersted discovered magnetic fields surrounding current carrying conductors. This salient discovery immediately unified the formerly separate sciences of electricity and magnetism. Experiments revealed that if the electron flow was to the right, then the magnetic field lines — christened the Oersted flux — would loop around the conductor in the clockwise direction as viewed from the right. The left-hand rule, whereby the left thumb points in the direction of electron flow while the fingers of the left hand encircle the conductor with the flux, shows the orientation of the magnetic field. These fields have centers but no boundaries, fading in intensity with increasing distance from the conductor itself.
When two parallel conductors carry steady currents in the same direction, they experience a force of attraction. Opposite currents cause a repulsive force. These forces appear because of the looping Oersted fluxes surrounding all current carrying conductors. The direction of each magnetic field where it intersects the other conductor, the relative motion of these fields, and the resulting forces of attraction or repulsion are all at right angles to one another.
Understanding Oersted's flux and the forces between parallel current carrying conductors is crucial in understanding electromagnetic gravity.
The following discussion employs three mutually orthogonal dimensions: approaching/receding perpendicular to the page, upward/downward in line with the page, and left/right again in the plane of the page. The terms inward/outward merely refer to forces of attraction or repulsion between the two conductors.
Consider two parallel wires seen in cross section, carrying electron flows in the same direction, say approaching you perpendicular to the page. By the left-hand rule, the clockwise Oersted flux from the wire on the left will pass through the wire on the right with a downward pointing magnetic field vector B. At the same time, the clockwise Oersted flux from the wire on the right will pass through the wire on the left with an upward pointing magnetic field vector B. Since both electron currents are approaching you with velocity V, so are their associated magnetic fields. Oersted fluxes always move in lock-step with electron flow, in a direction perpendicular to their own flux lines.
By the right-hand rule and the vector cross product
E = B x V
it is found that the left wire will experience a motional electric field E pointing toward the right, which has been induced in it by the approaching magnetic flux centered on the right wire. At the same time, the right wire will experience a motional electric field E pointing toward the left, which has been induced in it by the approaching magnetic flux centered on the left wire. The E field vector defines the direction a positive test charge will feel a force of attraction (or a negative charge feels a force of repulsion), but only if there is relative motion between the charged particle and the inducing magnetic field.
In this case, because the two approaching electron currents are parallel and in the same direction, there is no relative motion at all between the approaching Oersted flux of either conductor and the negatively charged electron flow in the other. There is, however, relative motion between the Oersted fluxes and the positively charged stationary protons in the opposite wire. Because the two motional E field vectors are pointing directly at each other, the two wires experience a net force of mutual attraction, due solely to the relative motion between fields and protons. The actual situation is slightly more complex, since not all electrons are part of the current, but the argument is still valid, since equal numbers of stationary electrons and protons will cancel out their forces, leaving the remaining moving electrons and an equal number of stationary protons to create the net attraction.
Now consider what happens when the current in one of the wires is reversed. Let us switch the electron flow in the left-hand wire so that it is now moving away from you. By the left-hand rule, the counter-clockwise Oersted flux from the left wire that passes through the right wire is now pointing upward and receding. Since both magnetic field B and velocity vector V have reversed directions, the resulting E field is unchanged, as verified by the right-hand rule. The motional electric field induced in the right-hand wire still points to the left. Meanwhile, the clockwise Oersted flux originating on the right-hand wire still intersects the left-hand wire pointing upward and approaching, as before. Therefore, we again have two motional E field vectors pointing directly inward, the same as before.
However, in contrast to the first case, the Oersted fluxes are now moving in one direction while the electrons in the other wire are moving in the opposite direction. This results in twice the relative motion between Oersted fluxes and electron currents compared to that between Oersted fluxes and stationary protons. The stationary protons will still feel the same inward forces directed along the E field vectors, but the flowing electrons will now feel outward forces of exactly twice the magnitude. Therefore, the forces of repulsion due to the electrons overcome the forces of attraction due to the protons, and the two wires experience a mutual net force of repulsion.
During the late 1960's physicist William Hooper performed research on electric fields, eventually concluding there were three distinct varieties. He focused on the motional electric field, which is responsible for the electromagnetic force between parallel current carrying conductors, the induced electromotive force in a generator, and the force of rotation in an electric motor. Because the motional field was immune to shielding, he proposed that gravity itself may actually be an electric field of this type.
In an electric generator, a mechanical force turns conductive windings through permanent magnetic fields. This induces an electromotive force, or voltage, in the conductors. The direction of the permanent magnetic fields, motion of the windings, and induced electron flow within the conductors are all at right angles to one another.
In an electric motor, an electron flow through conductive windings in the presence of permanent magnetic fields induces a rotation of the windings. The direction of the permanent magnetic fields, electron flow within the conductors, and induced rotation of the windings are, again, all at right angles.
Generators and motors both involve magnetic fluxes described by the vector B, some velocity described by the vector V, and motional electric fields described by the vector E. The relevant vector equation is
E = V x B
The vector B symbolizes the density and direction of magnetic fields, which in this case point from the north pole to the south pole of permanent magnets. It appears in second place here because the magnetic fields are stationary.
In a generator, the velocity vector V represents the rotational motion of the windings imposed by some mechanical agency, relative to the stationary magnetic field B. The motional electric field vector E represents the electromotive force causing electrons to flow within the conductive windings themselves.
In an electric motor, the vector V signifies the electron flow in the windings due to an applied voltage, relative to the stationary magnetic field B. The motional electric field vector E appears as the rotation of the windings themselves. This is just the opposite of the situation in an electric generator.
Hooper's field can generate gravity, using the very same ingredients required for the operation of electric motors and generators, and inherent in parallel conductors with steady currents. The magnetic fields required for gravity come from the Oersted fluxes originating in the individual electron orbitals of all the atoms in a gravitating mass. Because electrons are in continuous rapid orbital motion about atomic nuclei, they constitute miniature electric currents, and therefore generate Oersted fluxes. The velocity vector arises from the motion of the electrons themselves, which results in sweeping magnetic fields. The relevant vector equation is
E = B x V
which is reversed from that describing electric motors and generators. This is because in atoms — just as in current carrying conductors — the Oersted fluxes themselves are moving, while in motors and generators, the windings are moving and the magnetic fields are stationary.
For objects on the surface of Earth or any planet, the Oersted flux vector fields will typically point along the surface in all directions and be precisely perpendicular to their velocity vectors. A north-pointing Oersted flux will always have an eastward velocity. An east-pointing flux will always have a southward velocity, and so on. The resultant motional electric field vector from a planet's Oersted fluxes will, therefore, always point downward.
As the combined Oersted fluxes from all the electrons in a gravitating body sweep through a material object, an orthogonal motional electric field vector pulls on all the protons and pushes on all the electrons, causing a slight radial separation or polarization of charge within the atoms of the affected object. This automatically places the protons a little closer and the electrons a little farther from the field source. Therefore, the pull on all the protons in a body will slightly exceed the repulsion on all the electrons, resulting in a weakly attractive force commonly called a gravitational field.
Because Hooper began with magnetic and electric fields to explain gravity, the theory is naturally unifying. Since the model shows that electrons and protons in matter are pulled in opposite directions with unbalanced forces inside atoms, it explains why gravity always attracts, and why it is the weakest force of nature. It can also explain the equivalence principle, inertial effects, and the gyroscopic effect.
In the sections to follow, we will further explore and explain the details of Hooper's field, including how it can be transmitted instantaneously across the Universe.
Introduction to Electrogravitics
Numerical Electrogravitics / Applied Electrogravitics
Electric Fields / The Motional Field / Electrogravitic Fields / Inertial Fields
"By
his willingness to change his model or his concepts, the scientist is admitting
that he makes no claim to possessing ultimate truth."
Wernher von Braun
Electrogravitics in a Nutshell
The principles summarized above are rooted in electromagnetism, which may well turn out to be the sole force of nature in the Universe. Many of these ideas appear in the writings of William J. Hooper, Steven J. Smith, and Nils Rognerud.
There are two unrelated methods of attaining lift within an atmosphere — lighter-than-air and heavier-than-air. Similarly, there may be two independent ways of achieving flight in space — rocket propulsion and field propulsion. Rocket propulsion simply uses brute force, trading the backward momentum of propellants for the forward momentum of a spaceship.
Field propulsion, on the other hand, provides a potentially superior method of attaining spaceflight. It sweeps away the brute concepts of force and mass, replacing them with the more elegant ideas of field and charge. According to this theory, a gravity field is simply a non-uniform "motional electric field." Every atom in the Universe is both a transmitter and a receiver of magnetic fields which induce these kinds of electric fields, because all matter everywhere consists of charged particles. In other words, gravity may be nothing more than an aspect of electromagnetism. If gravity does have an electromagnetic basis, then future spacefarers will generate their own gravitational fields and swiftly sail the cosmic ocean without the limitations imposed by inertia, propellants, or the rocket equation.
Consider the Bohr model of the atom — a single positively charged proton orbited by a single negatively charged electron. The opposite charges on these subatomic particles exactly cancel each other out, accounting for the neutral state of bulk matter in the Universe.
Associated with an orbiting electron is a magnetic field, which accompanies the electron as it orbits the nucleus very rapidly. The electron orbit amounts to a tiny electric circuit. As with any current carrying conductor, the left-hand rule defines the magnetic field: the thumb points in the direction of electron flow, and the fingers of the left hand wrap around the conductor to show the orientation of the magnetic field. In the case of an orbital electron, the magnetic field curls around the electron orbit in a doughnut-like shell or torus, appears at all distances from the atom, and sweeps through all space.
As the electron orbits the nucleus, it carries this magnetic field with it. Note that if electrons are themselves magnetic entities, this would explain the ubiquitous presence of magnetic fields with electric currents. In the case of individual orbiting electrons, the magnetic field is discontinuous, presenting a sort of wave-front and fading out behind as the electron orbits the nucleus quadrillions of times per second. Also note that the magnetic energy must sweep the entire Universe, if electrons are magnetic entities with no physical boundaries. The magnetic flux does not expand into space, but is already in place as the magnetic "structure" of the electron itself.
Because the magnetic field always maintains the same orientation with respect to the electron orbit in accordance with the left-hand rule, it will seem, from our vantage point outside the atom, to periodically reverse polarity as the electron orbits the nucleus . These very fast polarity reversals seem to cancel out the magnetic fields, leaving only a magnetically induced motional electric field in its wake. More on motional fields in a minute.
An electric field is a region where charged particles — electrons and protons — feel a strong force in one direction or another. A gravity field is a region where mass particles feel a very weak force in one direction only. Yet all masses are composed of charged particles. The key difference between electric and gravitational fields, then, is that electric fields attract or repel strongly, whereas gravity fields always attract weakly. Before electromagnetically explaining these attributes of gravity, let's take a closer look at electric fields.
There are three kinds of electric field, according to Dr. William J. Hooper, late professor emeritus of physics, Principia College. These are the static field, the transformer field, and the motional field. Each of these has its counterpart magnetic field. Furthermore, there are over a dozen parameters describing these fields, including field dependence, spatial nature, and shieldability.
The electrostatic field is a primary field which can exist independently, is continuous in its spatial distribution, and can easily be shielded. It is caused by the presence of one or more charged particles.
The transformer electric field is also continuous and can be shielded, but depends on flux linking and an accelerating or oscillating magnetic field for its existence.
The motional electric field is discontinuous, appearing only where moving charges exist in the presence of a stationary magnetic field, or where a moving magnetic field sweeps past stationary charged particles. It cannot be measured with a voltmeter, but penetrates all matter. The motional electric field cannot be shielded, a key attribute it shares with gravity.
In the presence of stationary charged particles, a motional electric field E is created by a magnetic field B moving with velocity V, as described by the following vector product:
E = B x V
By the right-hand rule, the fingers of the right hand point in the direction of the magnetic field vector B then "curl" in the direction of its velocity. The extended thumb now points in the direction of the motional electric field vector E. If the magnetic field is stationary and charged particles move through it, as in an electric motor, the vector product is reversed.
The B field vector typically points from the magnetic north pole to the magnetic south pole. In the case of electron orbitals, however, the magnetic field vector curls around the electron path as defined by the left-hand rule.
Keeping the doughnut-shaped region of magnetic flux surrounding the electron orbit in mind, let us view the atom from different angles some arbitrary distance away. First we'll look at the atom "edge-on" so that the electron appears to oscillate back and forth on a horizontal line centered on the proton. Some 10 quadrillion times each second, the electron will come between us and the proton, and 10 quadrillion times per second it will go behind the proton. The magnetic flux from the torus will pass our location in space each time this happens. At other times, it will sweep someone else's location in space. Because the magnetic field curls around the electron orbit by the left-hand rule, the magnetic field direction we see will always be pointed straight up whenever the electron passes to the right between us and the proton, and will always be pointed down whenever the electron passes to the left behind the proton. The ring of magnetic flux pointing in all other directions, as it speeds around the orbital path, sweeps through other points in space, missing us completely. We therefore see only that magnetic flux sweeping our location in space from the outside of the torus on the near side of the orbit and from the inside of the torus on the far side of the orbit.
Now that we know that the magnetic field vector is pointing up when the electron is moving horizontally to the right between us and the proton, and that it is pointing down when the electron is moving horizontally to the left behind the proton, we can apply the vector field equation above, and find out the direction of the motional electric field at these times. Pointing the fingers of the right hand in the direction of B, then curling them in the direction of V, the right thumb points in the direction of E. When we do this we find that the motional electric field vector always points toward the atom from our location in space, regardless of where we are, where the electron is in its orbit, or which direction the magnetic field vector points.
To verify this finding, let us now move to a location "above" the atom such that it appears that the electron is orbiting counter-clockwise around the proton. Applying the left-hand rule to the electron orbit, we now see that the magnetic flux sweeping past our new locaion above the torus is always pointed inward, toward the proton. Picking any point on the path of the electron, we can once again apply the right-hand rule. Pointing the fingers of the right hand from the electron orbital toward the nucleus (the direction of B), then curling them in the direction of motion of the electron and its magnetic field, the right thumb will always point directly at the atom.
We have now established that all atoms generate motional electric, or electrogravitic, vector fields pointing inward from all directions in space. But what does this mean?
The significance of inward-pointing electrogravitic vector fields surrounding all atoms is crucial in understanding how electrogravity works. For, if individual atoms generate such fields, then bulk matter must generate such fields as well. How do such fields actually work?
A charged particle moving through a magnetic field experiences a force at right angles to both its own velocity and the magnetic field direction. The force F depends on the particle's positive or negative charge q, its velocity V (speed and direction), and the magnetic field vector B (magnitude and direction).
F = q (V x B)
Vectors, indicated by underlining, specify information about both magnitude and direction. Therefore the expression above tells us the angle between the charged particle's motion and the magnetic field lines. This vector equation again employs the right-hand rule. If the angle q from the particle's velocity vector to the magnetic field vector is measured counter-clockwise in a horizontal plane, the force points vertically upward for a positive charge and vertically downward for a negative charge, as illustrated here. The magnitude of the force is given by
F = qVB sin q
A charged particle moving in one direction relative to a stationary magnetic field is equivalent to a magnetic field moving in the opposite direction relative to a stationary charged particle. Therefore, reversing the order of the cross product will yield the same answer, provided the velocity is now understood to be that of the magnetic field itself.
F = q (B x V)
The right-hand rule and magnitude formula above still apply, but the angle q is now measured from the magnetic field vector to its own velocity vector.
For example, if the original angle between a particle's velocity and the magnetic field vector is 30 degrees, the new angle between the magnetic field and its own motion in the opposite direction will be 150 degrees. The sine of both these angles is ½, so the result is the same.
To simplify the expressions above, we may define the motional electric field intensity as the force felt by a charge:
E = F / q
E = q (B x V) / q
This immediately yields the vector product
E = B x V
which gives the motional electric field due to a moving magnetic field. This vector tells us the direction, as before, that a positive charge will feel a force. Negative charges will feel a force in the opposite direction.
As an example, let's look at the Bohr atom again — a single proton orbited by a single electron. Now we'll consider how it acts as a receiver of electrogravity, rather than as an emitter. Remember that an electrogravitic field and a motional electric field are equivalent.
Imagine the Bohr atom to be near the source of a local electrogravitic B x V field, such as a moon or a planet. The proton and electron will feel forces in precisely opposite directions, as already explained. Within the atom, the average positions of the proton and electron will therefore be affected by this single electrogravitic field. The proton will be forced toward the field source while the electron is forced away. Such an atom is therefore said to be slightly polarized.
The induced charge polarization in the atom amounts to a tiny game of tug-of-war. But something interesting happens at this point. Since the proton has moved slightly closer to the center of gravity, and the electron has moved slightly farther away, the attraction on the proton very slightly exceeds the repulsion on the electron. The proton therefore wins the game, pulling the electron toward the center of the field. The atom as a whole will feel a very weak force in the downward direction. This model, originally worked out by William J. Hooper, thus explains both why the gravitational force always attracts and why it is so weak compared to the electromagnetic force itself.
An inertial field is a localized force-field generated as the reaction to a contact force. When you step on the gas, you are pushed back into your seat. When you negotiate a tight curve, the inwardly directed centripetal force taking you around the curve results in an outward reaction commonly called centrifugal force. And when a rocket accelerates into space, the astronauts "pull" several G's. In every case, the inertial force is directed opposite to the contact force.
A sound understanding of electrogravitics requires a proper understanding of both inertial and gravity fields, because they are equivalent in many ways. For example, a rocket ship floating in space can generate onboard gravity simply by firing its engine. In this case, the resulting inertial field becomes a temporary gravity field.
If gravity fields involve charge separations in atoms, is it possible that inertial fields do as well? Consider the aforementioned example of a rocket firing its engines in space. The exhaust gases within the thrust chamber develop extreme pressures, and provide the "upward" thrust as the reaction to their expansion and acceleration through the rocket nozzle. It is actually the electrons in the outer orbitals of the exhaust gases pushing against the electrons in the outer orbitals of the solid thrust structure, that accounts for the thrust being transferred to the vehicle.
The orbital electrons in the thrust structure will be repelled slightly "upward" by the exhaust gas orbital electrons in the thrust chamber. At the same time, the protons in the thrust structure will tend to move "downward" in response to the attractive force from those very same exhaust gas electrons, because opposite electrical charges attract one another. The first layer of atoms in the solid structure of the vehicle will therefore have a slight polarization of charge the same as in the electrogravitic fields already discussed above. The next layer of atoms will undergo an identical charge separation as the polarized atoms with their distended electron clouds in the first layer repel the electrons and attract the protons of the second tier. This process is quickly repeated until the atomic structure of the entire ship is similarly polarized.
Recognizing the volume-wise distribution of electrons and protons inside atoms, the positively charged protons take up very little space and reside at the centers of atoms. Negatively charged electrons, on the other hand, zip around in a huge "cloud" surrounding the nucleus. If the nucleus were the size of a baseball, the electron cloud would easily fill an auditorium. This being the case, it is obviously the electrons that transmit forces to the extremities of other atoms.
Because it is electrons — not protons — that undoubtedly transfer inertial forces from atom to atom in the solid structure of the accelerating rocket, every atom responds to a short-range force field from "below." Each horizontal row or tier of atoms responds to the atoms just "below" and serves as short-range field generator for the atoms just "above." All electrons shift "upward" while all protons shift "downward," ever so slightly. Since the protons in any atom are now in a stronger part of the adjacent electron field than its own electrons are, they are attracted "downward" with a force slightly greater than the electrons are repelled "upward," because it is the adjacent electron field that attracts an atom's protons and repels its electrons. Therefore the net inertial force on every atom is in the "downward" direction as the ship accelerates "upward."
By this analysis, both inertial and gravitational fields involve small charge separations inside atoms of affected matter, with protons attracted more strongly than electrons are repelled, and with similar results. In the next section, we will actually calculate the numerical value of the charge separation due to gravity at Earth's surface.
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"Knowledge [is] the wing wherewith we fly to Heaven."
Shakespeare
All matter is composed of charged particles. As a result, Newton's law of universal gravitation looks just like Coulomb's law. Compare these pairs of equations:
F = ma
An acceleration
field imparts a force to a mass.
F
= qE
An electric field imparts a force to a charge.
F
= G Mm / r2
Two
masses exert mutual gravitational forces on each other.
F
= k Qq / r2
Two charges exert mutual
electrical forces on each other.
Notice the equivalence of these equations. Newton's masses correspond to Coulomb's
charges, and acceleration corresponds to electric field intensity. All four
equations describe real forces.
Comparing Newton's Law of Gravitation with Coulomb's Law of Electromagnetism, the forces involved are both directly proportional to the product of two masses — or charges — and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
To show the actual equivalence of these equations, we will now use the Coulomb law to model gravity.
F = k Qq / r2
The force, F, is simply a push or a pull set up between two like or unlike charges Q and q. As in a magnet, like charges (or magnetic poles) always repel, and unlike charges (or poles) always attract. Forces are given in Newtons (N) and charge is measured in Coulombs (C).
The Coulomb Constant k is equal to
k = 8.987552 x 109 Nm2/C2 = 1/4pe0
where e0 is the electrical permittivity of free space or electric constant. The last variable r in the equation above represents the radial distance in meters between the centers of the two charges, Q and q.
The next step is to determine the effective electrostatic charge — in the model — on each of two massive objects, such as the Earth and a one-kilogram mass of any substance: hydrogen, milk, gold, anything. The actual charges on these objects are zero, of course, because they contain equal numbers of positively charged protons and negatively charged electrons. In the electrostatic model, however, we can assign each mass an effective charge representing a gravitational field.
The ratio of the large effective charge Qe to the small, opposite effective charge qe should equal the ratio of their actual masses, since in both cases, a force of attraction results. Using the mass of the Earth as our starting point, we have
Qe/qe = M/m = 5.9763 x 1024 kg / 1 kg = 5.9763 x 1024
Qe = (5.9763 x 1024) qe
By a series of algebraic steps, we will now obtain numerical values for Qe and qe making use also of the weight of 1 kilogram on Earth (9.80665 N) and Earth's mean radius (6.37681 x 106m).
F = k Qeqe / r2
F = k (5.9763 x 1024) qe2 / r2
qe = [ F r2 / k (5.9763 x 1024) ] 1/2
qe = [ (9.80665 N) (6.37681 x 106m)2 / (8.987552 x 109 Nm2/C2) (5.9763 x 1024) ] 1/2
qe = 8.6164 x 10-11 C (for 1 kilogram)
Qe = (5.9763 x 1024) qe = 5.1494 x 1014 C (for the Earth)
As we have already seen, electrogravitics explains gravity as the difference between the forces of attraction on the protons and repulsion on the electrons within individual atoms. This concept can be written as an equation based on Coulomb's law:
F = kQe(+q) /r12 + kQe(-q) /r22
The charges +q and -q stand for the proton and electron charge magnitudes, while radial distances r1 and r2 stand for the very close but slightly different average distances from the Earth's center to those protons and electrons, respectively. The difference between r1 and r2 is extremely small, since we expect it to be an effect that occurs inside atoms. The average distance to the electrons (r2) should be slightly greater than the average distance to the protons (r1). Because of the tiny difference (r2 – r1) between the two radii, adding r1 to r2 results in just twice the radius (to one part in a trillion), whereas taking their difference results in a tiny but non-zero number. A little more algebra yields an expression for this small value.
F = kQeq (1/r12 – 1/r22) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Factor out kQeq.
F = kQeq (r22 / r12r22 – r12 / r12r22) . . . . . . .Multiply 1st term by (r2/r2 )2, 2nd term by (r1/r1)2.
F = kQeq (r22 – r12) / r12r22 . . . . . . . . . . . . Simplify with common denominator.
F = kQeq [ (r2 – r1) (r2 + r1) / (r2)2 ] . . . . . . .Let r1r2 = r2 because r1 nearly equals r2.
F = kQeq [ (r2 – r1) (2r) / r4 ] . . . . . . . . . . . .Let (r1 + r2) = 2r for the same reason.
F = 2kQeq [ (r2 – r1) / r3 ] . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Bring 2 to front; simplify r/r4 to 1/r3.
(r2 – r1) = Fr3 / 2kQeq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Solve for (r2 – r1).
To numerically compute (r2 – r1), the tiny radial distance between the charges inside the atoms, we will need a numerical value for q, the total electron or proton charge magnitude, as explained above. The effective electrostatic charge qe calculated previously is not used here, because this value already assumes a difference between total charge attractions and repulsions in the object under scrutiny. We are now calculating that very difference, in terms of the subatomic charge separation, (r2 – r1) using all the protons and electrons in the object and assuming the Earth carries an effective electrostatic charge Qe. For the mathematically inclined, here is the relationship between qe and q which we will numerically verify a little later:
F = k Qeqe / r2 = kQe(+q) /r12 + kQe(-q) /r22
qe = 2q (r2 – r1) / r
At this point, let us verify the electrostatic model by calculating the weight of a one kilogram mass on Earth using Newton's law and Coulomb's law. It should, by definition, equal 9.80665 Newtons, in both models.
In Newton's law, the weight is the force of attraction (F) between two masses, the Earth (M) and the kilogram (m):
F = G Mm / r2
F = (6.672599 x 10-11N m2/kg2) x (5.9763 x 1024 kg) x (1 kg) ÷ (6.37681 x 106 m)2
F = 9.8066 (452) N
In Coulomb's law, the weight is the force of attraction (F) between two effective electrostatic charges, the Earth (Qe) and the kilogram (qe):
F = k Qeqe / r2
F = (8.987552 x 109 N m2/C2) x (5.1494 x 1014 C) x (8.6164 x 10-11 C) ÷ (6.37681 x 106 m)2
F = 9.8065 (657) N
The results are in essential agreement, verifying that our numbers are correct. Using a mean radius for the Earth, rather than an equatorial or polar radius, is important because the Earth is an oblate spheroid with a bulging equator and flattened poles. The force of gravity depends on the distance from the center of the planet, whichever model is used.
Getting back to the problem at hand, we already have values for the force or weight F of the kilogram at Earth's surface, the mean Earth radius r, Coulomb's constant k, and the effective electrostatic Earth charge Qe. We'll need a few more constants before we can proceed:
proton mass = 1.6726231 x 10-27 kg
electron mass = 9.1093897 x 10-31 kg
neutron mass = 1.6749286 x 10-27
kg
electron or proton charge = 1.60217733 x 10-19 C
The absolute value of electron and proton charges are always equal in magnitude as well as sign. The actual negative charge on the electron is covered by the minus sign between the two terms in the algebraic derivation above.
Starting with the simplest element, hydrogen, we have at the atomic scale a single proton orbited by a single electron. To calculate the total electron or proton charge magnitude per kilogram, we can use this simple formula:
q = Charge per kg =
(total electron or proton charge) / (sum of subatomic masses in kg)
= (absolute value of electron charge) / (1 proton mass + 1 electron mass)
= (1.60217733 x 10-19 C) / (1.6726231 x 10-27
